Political Violence in Rwanda Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Political Violence in Rwanda - Essay Example But understanding the historical context of this horrible phenomenon would evidently show that the root cause of the political violence tearing apart Rwanda goes back to its colonization by Western powers, which institutionalized racist doctrines to their advantage. II Historical Context: Rooting-out the Political Violence Rwanda, a small nation belonging to Africa’s Great Lakes region – considered to be among the most intense conflict zones in the world – has shocked the world not because of its dire poverty but because of the intensity of the political violence that erupted between the majority of its own people – the Hutus and Tutsis (Merlino, par. 1-2). At first glance, this could be understood simply as another ethnic violence, but historical facts would strongly dispute such characterization. In a study ordered by the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC), Shyaka showed that the Hutu, Tutsi and Twa communities in Rwanda started not as e thnic groups, tribes or races because they share common culture and language, and live in the same territory, as they all belong to one unique ethnic group in Rwanda known as the Banyarwanda, which during the pre-colonial period served one monarch – the â€Å"Umwami.† Neither can they also be classified as social classes because they were all socially stratified. Instead, Rwandan identity was defined by their clan or lineage, which also implies their economic status. Furthermore, these communities were better distinguished by their expertise (eg. Hutus were known farmers; Tutsis, cattle breeders; and Twas, fishermen, hunters and potters). However, this identification had been deconstructed by European colonizers, who stripped off Rwandan society of its intrinsic values and imposed those which served colonial interest and who sharply racialized Rwandan people into opposing ethnicities, done through mythical and ideological construction using the Hamitic theory. Thus in the colonial period, Rwandan society was organized hierarchically into three antagonistic races: the minority Tutsis (9-14%) as the superior conquering race had become the privileged candidates to assist colonizers; the majority Hutus (85-90%) as the inferior Bantu race had become the dominated; and the Twas (1%) as the pygmoids. Such distinction created resentment and frustration on the part of the majority Hutus, while arrogance on the part of the minority Tutsis, alienating them from each other and making them easily colonized. In fact, European colonizers played them off whenever it works best to their colonial interest. (7-19) Succeeding events from 1950s onwards (Revolution of1959-1961, 1963-64, and Coup d'etat 1972-1973) were characterized by Hutu power ideology – annihilate Tutsis being the cause of Hutu sufferings, deeply polarizing Rwanda society. This erosion of middle ground tragically marked Rwanda’s decolonization and early postcolonial politics, which wo uld later culminate to the 1994 genocide. (Newbury and Newbury 7) III Local and International Conditions Exacerbating Political Violence The confluence of events in the local and international level exacerbated the enmity between Tutsis and Hutus leading to the 1994 genocide. First, the shift of political power from the oppressor (Tutsi) to the oppressed (Hutu) in the postcolonial Rwanda did not in any way improve but instead worsened their antagonism, as Hutus, instigated by the colonial power,

Reading summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Reading summary - Essay Example The nature of pre-modern social life was essentially religious and it did represent the society’s collective conscious. Thus, in order to analyze this it is quite proper to have broad understanding of recent religions, which is only possible if we go back into the past and follow the manner how it progressed in history. Religions showed same conformity to some essential elements such as their outside and visible characteristics which makes them comparable to one another. Although in the course of history, religious life appeared to be complicated and diversified which Durkheim referred as difficult to distinguish such as secondary from principal, essential from accessory, popular superstitions from purest dogmas, and the beliefs from rites and even from priests to monks and laymen. With this build up, it is not easy to situate the common foundation of religious life. Lower societies are then compared to more advanced societies wherein the former being simple and with slighter development of individuality makes it easier to identify its religious foundations as compared to the latter which everything is common to all. It is thought that the more advanced a society is, the more complicated it is to trace the early beginnings of religious life. The primary religions then allow us to understand these elementary forms since the facts are simpler, not influenced, and as Durkheim see it as nearer and more closely related to the motives which have really determined these acts (Durkheim, 7). Religious origin for a long time has been known to be the first system of representations. Durkheim believed that in order to understand these representations there must be the participation as to time, space and identity of individual thoughts. However, Durkheim stated that we cannot conceive time but we can only realized that portions of our past

Organizational Structure Essay Example for Free

Organizational Structure Essay An organizational structure is a composition that specifies a companys hierarchical structure. There are various kinds of conformations that organizations can choose to build their business around. The organizational structure exemplifies the way in which control and business affairs have been appointed within the organization. Organizational structure encompasses the design of an organization though people positioning and responsibilities in order for organizational goals can be reached. Some of the time, a formal structure is not necessary due to a small informal business setting. In large organization responsibilities must be distributed. Hence, the reason that policies and procedures are established that assign responsibilities for numerous positions. The determination of these organizational functions (such as marketing, finance, human resources, and operations) influence and determine the organizational structure of your an organization. The three main types of organizational structures are functional structure, divisional structure, and matrix structure. Divisional Structure The structure that an organization is based around also is contingent on the enormity of the company. Divisional structure separates the faculty based on the commodity and customer demand verses geographical location. For example, each area within the organization is accountable for certain divisions. Each division has individual support systems such as finance department, marketing department, warehouse department, and maintenance department. Divisional structure is grants flexibility and is a decentralized structure. Divisional structure also grants quick adaptability to geographical changes. Divisional structure embellishes advancements in the market and industry and allows for various plans of action. However, this structure causes replication of resources due to each unit having the necessity of every resource. PepsiCo’s Organizational Design An example of an organization design around divisional structure is PepsiCo. PepsiCo is a flexible company that is constantly looking for new innovations and consistently adapts to the geographical market. PepsiCo has a decentralized organizational structure. The functional determinations are made in individual units with corporate control and direction. PepsiCo has one CEO and three division presidents. The companys hierarchical structure continues as each division is broken down into market units. Each market unit has a director. Furthermore each market unit is divided into regional units, then down the chain to sales units. Each unit has its own resources, such as marketing, finance, human resources, and operations departments. PepsiCo determines responsibilities by departmentalization. Departmentalization is a conglomeration of common duties and characterization of tasks. The influences of departmentalization are function, product, geographic, process and customer. PepsiCo maintains a span of control by making sure of correct distribution of responsibility among employees and task obligations are accounted for. For example, units are tasked with weekly, monthly, quarterly, and yearly forecast for sales, operations, overhead, and labor. Reports are sent weekly to account for these actions. Human resources departments are in each division to ensure control over the organization. There are guidelines and procedures in place to ensure the rules are being followed across the globe. Formalization sets the standard for the administered responsibility. Each unit at PepsiCo has management teams in place to ensure control of task performances. For example, a if a location has been tasked with a 1,000 case distribution for week one in the period and the sales teams are severely falling short on sales, management will step in to centralize the issue, reiterate the method of actions, and ensure the actions are conducted in a certain manner to achieve results. PepsiCo is multinational organization made up of three units which are PepsiCo Americas Foods, PepsiCo Americas Beverages and PepsiCo International. This structure allows the organization to focus on manifesting international markets, which will grant independence revenues, enabling focus on better product advancement. The organization is spread across the globe. However, the control is local, unlike a matrix structure that is located only in a single area (PepsiCo 2012). Matrix Structure A matrix structure formalizes line teams as well as the typical divisional hierarchy. The matrix structure is a hybrid between the functional and divisional structure, effectively creating independent business units for each product or service created or each unique market targeted. The matrix-structured organization is a project-based business that divides individual groups based on functional specializations. Variation of the matrix structure divides the authority by both functional and project areas. The functional manager heads up the functional areas of the organization. The project supervisor oversees the assigned project. This allows for management to focus on areas of proficiency. Companies such as General Motors has based its organization around the matrix structure due to the ability to specialize in specific areas, and organizational communication through other fields. General Motors believes the differentiation of ideas creates innovational determinations. The matrix structure also allows the human resources department to be shared throughout the organization. General Motors is made up of one main chief information officer (CIO) and several divisional CIOs that control the functionalities in the organization. General Motors also has process information officers that work in various areas of expertise across the organization. General Motors believes the matrix structure develops global commercialism (Daft 2007). Functional Structure Functional Structured organizations group tasks according to the target. Functional structured organizations work well for organizations that have a need for departments to rely on expertise of its faculty. A major disadvantage to a functional structured organization is the communication boundaries due to variation in departments that work individually. One company that a functional structure works well is Wal-Mart. Wal-Mart is one of America’s largest retailers. Wal-Mart is designed by a functional structure. Wal-Mart’s target market is a consumer with median incomes. Wal-Mart has a limited amount of functions in specialized areas with in the organization. Wal-Mart does not produce its goods, but has enough buying power to supply the demanded products. The organizational structure and large size enables the buying power to purchase goods at low prices. This buying power enables Wal-Mart to offer its target market lower prices creating a competitive edge over other retailers. A functional structured organization; such as Wal-Mart have a chief executive officer, limited executive staff, and department heads in domineering areas of expertise such as accounting, marketing, human resources and warehouse. Wal-Mart’s headquarters and executive staff is made up of a Chief of Executive Officer, Chairman of the Board and Board of Directors, with supporting committees. Conclusion Determining an organizations structural design that will be the most effective for a specific company has great significance on organizational success. Using an unsuitable design structure can be consequential in communication, product development, customer service, and countless situations of other organizational issues. Organizational structure can determine the successful outcome of the organization. Reference Bateman, T. S., Snell, S. A. (2011). Management: Leading Collaborating in a Competitive World (ninth ed.). New York, NY: McGrall Hill. Retrieved May 7, 2012 (2012). PepsiCo. Retrieved May 7, 2012, from www.pepsico.com Daft, Richard (2007). Organizational Theory and Design (ninth ed.). Manson, OH: Thompson Higher Education. Retrieved May 7, 2012.

If I had it my way, I would tone down the zero tolerance act. It Essay

If I had it my way, I would tone down the zero tolerance act. It just punishes too harshly for some things. I think that it needs to distinguish the difference between minor problems, like playing with a toy gun, and major problems, like having drugs. Zero Tolerance The zero tolerance policies call for students to receive automatic suspensions or expulsions as punishment for certain offenses, primarily those involving weapons, threats, or drugs. I agree that safety is an important concern in schools, but sometimes the zero tolerance policy is taken too far. It is as if administrators don’t distinguish between minor and major discretions. I do believe that students who get in fights or who bring drugs into school should be punished. However, a third grader who shouts â€Å"b...

Economics Problems

Homework #3: Question 1. Problem and Application 4 on page 285. Please work on a, b, c, d, and e only. That is, ignore f. When you reconstruct the table in your work, please lower the space for Marginal Product and Marginal Cost by a half step. In other words, the first entries of Marginal Product and Marginal Cost should be aligned with the second entries of other columns. (50 points) Table of Costs: WorkerOutputMarginal Product Total CostAverage Total CostMarginal Cost 00–$200———– 12020 300$15. 00$5. 00 25030 400 8 3. 33 39040 500 5. 6 2. 50 412030 600 5 3. 33 514020 700 5 5 615010 800 5. 33 10 71555 900 5. 81 20 A. The table shows the marginal product; marginal product rises at first, but then starts to decline because of diminishing marginal product. B. The table shows the total costs for this scenario. C. Again, the table shows the average total cost. The average total cost will be shaped like a â€Å"U. † The average total cost declines as quantity rises when the quantity is low. When the quantity is high, the average total cost rises. D. The table shows the marginal cost. The marginal cost, like the average total cost, is also â€Å"U† shaped, but unlike the average total cost it rises steeply as the output increases. This is because of diminishing marginal product. E. When the marginal cost is falling, the marginal product is rising and vice versa. Question 2. (20 points) The licorice industry is competitive. Each firm produces 2 million strings of licorice per year. The strings have an average total cost of $0. 20 each, and they sell for $0. 30. a. What is the marginal cost of a string? Marginal cost = Change in total cost/change in quantity .30-. 20=. 0=Change in total cost .10/1=. 10 The marginal cost of one string is $0. 10. b. Is this industry in long-run equilibrium? Why or why not? No. In a long run quilibirum all firms are maximizing profits. No firms have incentive to enter or exit because all firms are earning zero economic profit. The firms in this competitive market are making a profit of $0. 10 on each string of licorice. At this rate there is no long-run equilibrium, but if more firms join this market to get in on some of the profit then there will be a long-run equilibrium; when too many firms join the market the demand goes down. This can cause firms to make zero profit. Question 3. (30 points) Consider the following table. The price of the product is $8. Quatitity Total cost 0. $8 1. 9 2. 10 3. 11 4. 13 5. 19 6. 27 7. 37 a. Calculate profit for each quantity. How much should the firm produce to maximize profit? b. Calculate marginal revenue and marginal cost for each quantity. Graph them. At what quantity do these curves cross? How does this relate to your answer to part (a)? c. Can you tell whether this firm is in a competitive industry? If so, can you tell whether the industry is in a long-run equilibrium?

The Happiness System, By Daniel Nettle - 997 Words

Happiness is something we as a human race value and treasure, but obtaining it and maintaining its presence in our lives can prove to be a difficult and exhausting task. Daniel Nettle writes that: â€Å"Most of us understand that the big issue in life is not being joyful, which is at best going to be an occasional perk, but being happy in the sense of generally satisfied overall (33).† Throughout his novel, Nettles explores the depths of happiness and what it means to experience it in all forms and aspects across generations and cultures, and how it helps develop us into the people that we are, and our success as a living species. The happiness system is designed to help us gain a better understanding of our core values, and to push us to continually strive to excel. Stagnancy is not beneficial to our relative fitness as a human race, and we must remain motivated by some force to avoid its grasp, as it has been proven over time to be a deadly mechanism of nature. Our â€Å"h appiness† will be discovered as a result of not just what we choose to pursue in life, but how we choose to pursue it, and the fact we even chose to pursue it at all. Because happiness is in itself hard to define, psychologists have developed a scale of various levels of happiness to help describe it. But to understand the levels, one must first be introduced to the idea of â€Å"flow.† As defined by Nettles, flow is a â€Å"state characterized by total absorption in a challenging activity for which the individual has theShow MoreRelatedHappiness : The Science Behind Your Smile By Daniel Nettle942 Words   |  4 PagesValenzuela November 26, 2016 PSY 104 Final Paper Happiness In the book Happiness: The Science Behind Your Smile by Daniel Nettle he states that happiness offers a remarkable portrait of feelings that poets, politicians, and philosophers all agree truly make the world go around. Nettle is currently at Newcastle University in the United Kingdom and is the Co-director of the center for behavioral and evolution. He mainly studies humans. Nettle is a behavioral biologist that that has interest in evolution

Nancy Astor, First Woman Seated in the House of Commons

Nancy Astor (May 19, 1879–May 2, 1964) was the first woman to take a seat in the British House of Commons. A society hostess, she was known for her sharp wit and social commentary. Fast Facts: Nancy Astor Known For: Social critic and first woman seated in the British House of CommonsAlso Known As: Nancy Witcher Langhorne Astor, Viscountess AstorBorn: May 19, 1879 in Danville, VirginiaParents: Chiswell Dabney Langhorne, Nancy Witcher KeeneDied: May 2, 1964 in Lincolnshire, EnglandPublished Work: My Two Countries, her autobiographyHonor: Freedom of the City of PlymouthSpouse(s): Robert Gould Shaw II (m. 1897–1903), Waldorf Astor (m. 1906–1952)Notable Quote: Women have got to make the world safe for men since men have made it so darned unsafe for women.Notable Exchange: Nancy Astor: Sir, if you were my husband, Id poison your tea. Winston Churchill: Madame, if you were my wife, Id drink it! Early Years Astor was born in Virginia  on May 19, 1879, as Nancy Witcher Langhorne. She was the  eighth of 11 children, three of whom died in infancy before she was born. One of her sisters, Irene, married the artist Charles Dana Gibson, who immortalized his wife as the Gibson girl. Joyce Grenfell was a cousin. Astors father Chisell Dabney Langhorne was a Confederate officer. After the war, he became a tobacco auctioneer. During her early childhood, the family was poor and struggling. As she became an adolescent, her fathers success brought the family wealth. Her father is said to have created the fast-talking style of auctioneering. Her father refused to send her to college, a fact that Astor resented. He sent Nancy and Irene to a finishing school in New York City. First Marriage In October 1897, Astor married society Bostonian Robert Gould Shaw. He was a first cousin of the Civil War Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, who had commanded African-American troops for the Union Army in the Civil War. They had one son before they separated in 1902, divorcing in 1903. Astor first returned to Virginia to manage her fathers household, as her mother had died during her Astors short marriage. Waldorf Astor Astor then went to England. On a ship, she met Waldorf Astor, whose American millionaire father had become a British lord. They shared a birthday and birth year and seemed to be very well matched. They married in London on April 19, 1906, and Nancy Astor moved with Waldorf to a family home in Cliveden, where she proved an adept and popular society hostess. They also bought a home in London. In the course of their marriage, they had four sons and one daughter. In 1914, the couple converted to Christian Science. She was strongly anti-Catholic and also opposed hiring Jews. Waldorf and Nancy Astor Enter Politics Waldorf and Nancy Astor became involved in reform politics, part of a circle of reformers around Lloyd George. In 1909, Waldorf stood for election to the House of Commons as a conservative from a Plymouth constituency; he lost the election but won on his second try, in 1910. The family moved to Plymouth when he won. Waldorf served in the House of Commons until 1919, when, at his fathers death, he became a Lord and thereby became a member of the House of Lords. The House of Commons Nancy Astor decided to run for the seat that Waldorf vacated, and she was elected in 1919. Constance Markiewicz had been elected to the House of Commons in 1918 but chose not to take her seat. Nancy Astor was thus the first woman to take a seat in Parliament and was the only woman MP until 1921. (Markiewicz believed Astor an inappropriate candidate, too out of touch as a member of the upper class.) Astors campaign slogan was Vote for Lady Astor and your children will weigh more. She worked for temperance, womens rights, and childrens rights. Another slogan she used was, If you want a party hack, dont elect me. In 1923, Astor published My Two Countries, her own story. World War II Astor was an opponent of socialism and, later during the Cold War, an outspoken critic of communism. She was also an anti-fascist. She refused to meet Adolf Hitler despite having the opportunity to do so. Waldorf Astor met with him about the treatment of Christian Scientists and came away convinced that Hitler was mad. Despite their opposition to fascism and the Nazis, the Astors supported economic appeasement of Germany, supporting the lifting of economic sanctions against Hitlers regime. During World War II, Astor was noted for her morale-boosting visits to her constituents, especially during German bombing raids. She just missed being hit once, herself. She also served, unofficially, as hostess to American troops stationed at Plymouth during the buildup to the Normandy invasion. Later Years and Death In 1945, Astor left Parliament, at her husbands urging and not entirely happily. She continued to be a witty and sharp critic of social and political trends when she disapproved, including of both communism and Sen. Joseph McCarthys anti-Communist witch hunts in the U.S. She largely withdrew from public life with the death of Waldorf Astor in 1952. She died on May 2, 1964. Legacy Astors time in Parliament was not one of great achievement or towering influence; she held no government posts and had no legislative achievements to show for her time of service. But the fact that she was the first woman to serve in that legislative body had a large impact. In the 2017 general election in Great Britain, a record 208 women MPs were elected to the House of Commons, a record high of 32 percent. Two female MPs, Margaret Thatcher and Theresa May, even ascended to the position of prime minister. Astor, as the first woman in the British House of Commons, was a trailblazer who first made it acceptable for women to serve. Sources â€Å"Nancy Astor, Viscountess Astor.†Ã‚  Ohio River - New World Encyclopedia, New World Encyclopedia.Keen, Richard, and Richard Cracknell. â€Å"Women in Parliament and Government.†Ã‚  Commons Library Briefing - UK Parliament, 20 July 2018,ï » ¿Ã¢â‚¬Å"Astors History.†Ã‚  Virtual Rome.